Jordan’s water challenge is compounded by the global refugee crisis. In 2019 the number of refugees hosted by Jordan reached 2.9m, making it the tenth-largest refugee-hosting country in the world and the second largest relative to national population, with 72 refugees per 1,000 residents. Although the majority of these refugees (2.2m) originated from Palestine and have lived in Jordan for several decades, displacement triggered by the civil war in Syria has led to the arrival of 676,000 Syrians in the past few years. Most Syrian refugees in Jordan live in urban areas, and over 80% live below the poverty line. [105]

This influx of refugees, coupled with overall population growth, has placed additional stress on Jordan’s water infrastructure, particularly in the northern governorates. [106] The water and sanitation conditions in refugee camps are dire; at the largest camp in the region, Za’atari, water is so scarce that each person is allotted only 0.03 cubic meters per day. [107] This water scarcity results in deteriorating sanitation, with multiple families forced to share bathwater and to avoid washing clothes. The water management in Za’atari and other camps is largely co-ordinated by UNICEF and most of the sanitation infrastructure is communal, which can cause issues for camp residents with cultural preferences for household-level sanitation over communal facilities. This tension has been exacerbated by concerns about the safety and privacy of the communal facilities. Some households have built their own makeshift private bathrooms, leading to uncontrolled and unhygienic wastewater management. Although the Za’atari camp has yet to face a major disease outbreak, waterborne diseases remain a critical risk in refugee camps due to poor sanitation. [108]

Jordan’s water and sanitation challenges are manifold, but robust engineering responses can help. To support these responses, engineering education must better prepare graduates to meet the country’s needs. This starts with developing multidisciplinary skills instead of focusing on technical skills. Experts critique the education system at both the school and university level for its focus on memorisation and conventional scenarios, and for its failure to give sufficient attention to critical thinking.

Water and sanitation systems in refugee camps require a separate approach, as these facilities are not connected to the national network. Although the national water strategy identifies refugee camps as contributing to the country’s water crisis and outlines measures to improve conditions, the camps are managed by the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) and UNICEF rather than by the government, with UNICEF responsible for water and sanitation services. [109] Having previously organised water provision as part of an emergency response, UNICEF, supported by the Jordanian Ministry of Water and Irrigation, completed a new water and wastewater network at the Za’atari camp in 2019, improving access and sanitation and reducing operating costs. [110] Now, every house has an in-built toilet as well as direct access to safe drinking water. Questions remain about the long-term management of the camp’s water and sanitation system, as UNICEF is not well suited to carry out the functions of a utility company. However, the government is unwilling to assume responsibility for its management because of the associated political and financial costs.

A 2017 study highlighted the need for a shift away from a humanitarian relief approach and towards a more structured and planned approach to the provision of sanitation facilities in Jordan’s refugee camps, using the Za’atari camp as an example. [111] This could include synchronising the construction of centralised water and sanitation infrastructures (which are vital in densely populated areas), as well as conducting public engagements, social assessments and communications to facilitate goodwill between stakeholders.

Universities could help by teaching engineering students more about camp systems, as these differ from conventional models. Operating a decentralised sanitation system for a small number of shelters requires a degree of maintenance, ideally by a resident with sufficient understanding to monitor the system. Local expectations of water supply should also be taken into consideration, as the successful sharing of limited resources requires community engagement and awareness. Camp systems depend on external funding, and it can be challenging to convince donors of the merits of particular technologies in a field that can be hard to understand.